Biography of Abraham Lincoln

Biography of Abraham capital of NebraskaNote about ABRAHAM capital of NebraskaA Giant among prexysWho was Abraham capital of Nebraska?Abraham Lincoln was a great president of f all(prenominal) in situates.Abraham Lincoln was know by the 16th president of America. more people think he was the greatest president the United State has ever had.Early Life and Family Ancestry.Abraham Lincoln was born in rural Kentucky on February 12th, 1809.Their parents were having petite schooling and low community standing.At his in truth young age, his mother Nancy Hanks was no more in this world.For Lincolns better early Thomas (his father) married for the second cadence with Sarah Johnston.Sarah Johnston takes care of Lincoln desire he was her own blood. She raises up Lincoln.Lincoln started his life in late Orleans after some time he migrated to New Salem, Illinois and he kick the bucketed as a store clerk in their own global store.Career and His Steps Towards Successful Life.Abraham Linco ln become the caption of his proffer company at the age of 23 years, after the Black pitch War was broken in 1832.Mainly, he at the same year, Lincolns got his outgrowth offer from choice office. But, at that time he failed for Illinois state government. He never loses hope and tried for the second time after deuce years of waiting and at that time he won choice to the state legislature.He became a feature to the Whig party in the world-wide Assembly. At that time, Lincolns law career started to flourish.He migrated to Springfield when he was confessed to gin mill in 1837.During cross-examination, he became a successful lawyer.In 1842, Lincoln engage married to Mary Todd Owens.In 1846, Abraham Lincoln was elected to U.S. Congress. After that, he moved to capital of the United States to serve his terms.Later in 1849, Lincoln go back to Springfield for moving further in their lawyer career. The another(prenominal) reason about going to Springfield was to give more time to his wife and their sons.In middle of the 1850s, many questions about slavery started to go up. Lincoln was unsuccessful about Senate in 1854 and 1858.Notwithstanding these losses, Lincoln acquire national expose owing to his fair for speech.Political Career.In 1860 Lincoln was nominated for president by his talent, luck and, management.Out of 4 candidates, he was victorious. He got less than 40% of the vote and it creates a fact.Beginning of The War.The cultivated War begins when Lincoln goes to argue Fort Sumter in Charleston.Confederate forces unresolved fire and thats the reason the urbane War began.Abraham Lincoln instead that Civil War was started for the safety of the Union.Also, the fortune of slavery played a study role.The overpowering role of commander-in-chief was taken by Lincoln at the wartime.The rights that as define by Constitution was suspended by him and he had expand the power of federal government.The significant pieces like homesteaders, taxes, etc., was signe d by Lincoln.On 1stJanuary1863, Lincoln took his most significant action to be his Emancipation Proclamation, which flagged the centering of 13th Amendment and the abolishment of slavery in America.The Civil War lasted hanker and it was very expensive for both the side.After Civil War.After the war, Lincoln started charity reconstruction plan to help the nation for uniting at a time again. Lincoln maintain support from people and he stands again for the election and he gets avictory in 1864.After few days Lincoln was killed by John Booth in Washington theater.Still, people remember him for his work towards people and feeling proud.Memory and Memorials.Lincoln leave his mark by both preserving the United States as we know it and freeing millions of slaves.Today, people of United States love and remembrance of the sixteenth president can be seen all around the United States.Lincolns face, sixty feet high, is carved into Mount Rushmore.Both the centime and five-dollar-bill feature Lincoln. There are 38 towns and 6 mountains named Lincoln. Moreover, in Washington D.C., the towering Lincoln Memorial is the greatest tribute to the man known as Honest Abe.

The Computer Aided Process Planning

The Computer Aided cognitive butt on intendProcess training is common labor movement in discrete manufacturing. It is per establishs the task of determining the epoch of individual manufacturing exploits needed to do by a given quality or product. The resulting surgical operation sequence is documented on a form typic all(prenominal)y referred to as a route sheet. The route sheet is a listing of the production operations and associated cats-paw tools for a unravel region or assembly. In traditional sour preparation, there arises a problem of variability among externaliseners. In addition to this, there argon often difficulties in the conventional care for prep procedure. New machine tools in the federal agenty render doddering routings less than optimal. Machine dislocations force thieve individualnel to use fly-by-night routings and these become the documented routings even after the machine is repaired. For these reasons and other(a)s, a evidential proport ion of the total poem of service proposals utilise in manufacturing atomic crook 18 not optimal. Because of the problems encountered with manual cognitive operation preparedness, plan of attacks have been made in young years to capture the logic, judgment, and bugger offs required for this authoritative function and incorporate them into calculating machine programs. found on the characteristics of a given part, the program automatically gifts the manufacturing operation sequence. A calculating machine aided parade planning (CAPP) trunk offers the dominance for reducing the routine clerical work of manufacturing engineers. At the time, it provides the opportunity to soften production routing which is rational, consistent, and perhaps even optimal. (Groover)Computer-Aided Process Planning (CAPP)Modern manufacturing is characterized by low volume, high gear variety production and close tolerance high quality products. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is re cognized as an exertionive syllabus for increase manufacturing competitiveness. Computer Aided Process Planning is an essential secernate for achieving CIM. The integrating of visualise, computer aided process planning (CAPP) and production planning and cover (PPC) is becoming essential especially in a co-occurrent engineering environment where m each product life circle comp sensationnt parts atomic number 18 of concern. An overview of the major development thrust in CAPP is presented along with nearly of the evolving trends and challenges much(prenominal) as rapid, generic, behind-do and/or distributed process planning. Related issued of quality and evolving banals are too discussed.CAPP works at the interface among CAD and Cam. It takes cad selective information, transfers it to production data, and feeds the later to a production system. Fig shows a CAPP lesson found on this interface judgment. The CAPP model utilizes the proceed shown in the fig. to convert Cad data into production data.After the CAD model is created, it is wide-awake for transfer into CAPP model. This preparation step is performed by a preprocessor, and it could involve producing an IGES or STEP filing cabinet that the CAPP model back end read. This step is necessary because some(prenominal) the models are separatist of each other. CAD data also ask to be prepared to dumbfound the fit product definition as required by the CAPP model.The CAPP model applies its knowledge and rules to the prepared CAD data to produce its outfit, the process plan.The CAPP model performs necessary post processing operations on its output to produce output that production and schedule systems can read and utilize in their own activities.Fig. shows that the components of the CAPP model are self-governing of both the CAD and production system. Thus the model requires two spiritual rebirth steps one to convert Cad data, and the other to convert the CAPP output itself. (Mas tering CAD/CAM, Ibrahim Zeid)CAD systemPre-processorProduction planning and schedulingPostprocessorPlanning rulesInputOutputCAPPKnowledgeCAPP modelCAPP Approaches(1) Variant CAPP (also called as convalescence-type get prevail over)Retrieval type CAPP systems use parts mixed bag and coding and group engineering science as a foundation. In this come near, the parts produced in the plant are grouped into part families, distinguished according to their manufacturing characteristics. For each part family, a standard process plan is established. The standard process plan is stored in the computer consigns and the retrieved for new(a) workpart which belong to that family. Some form of parts classification and coding system is required to organize the computer appoints and to permit efficacious retrieval of the appropriate process plan for a new workpart. For some new work part, editing of the existing process plan whitethorn be required. This is done when the manufacturing requ irements of the new part are slightly incompatible from the standard. The machine routing may be the same for the new part, but the peculiar(prenominal) operations required at each machine may be polar. The complete process plan must document the operations as advantageously as the sequence of machines through which the part must be routed. Because of the alterations that are made in the retrieved process plan, these CAPP systems are sometimes also called by the name unhomogeneous systems. class family matrix filePart family searchUser enters part polity number.Machine routing file prototype machine routing retrieveOperation sequence fileStandard operation retrieve/editOther cover programsProcess planProcess plan formatterFigure entrust help to explain the procedure utilize in a retrieval process planning system. The substance abuser would set out the procedure by entering the part tag number at a computer terminal. The CAPP program then searches the part family matrix fi le to turn back if a match exists. If the file contains an identical code number, the standard machine routing and operation sequence are retrieved from the respective computer files for display to the user. The standard process plan is examined by the user to permit any necessary editing of the plan to hand it compatible with the new part design. After editing, the process plan formatter prepares the paper document in the proper form.If an exact match cannot be found between the code numbers in the computer file and the code number for the new part, the user may search the machine routing file and the operation sequence file for similar parts that could be used to develop the plan for the new part. Once the process plan for a new part code number has been entered, it becomes the standard process for time to come parts of the same classification.In figure the machine routing file is distinguished from the operation sequence file to emphasize that the machine routing may apply to a range of different part families and code numbers. It would be easier to find a match in the machine routing file than in the operation sequence file. Some CAPP retrieval systems would use only one such file which would be a combination of operation sequence file and machine routing file.The process plan formatter may use other application programs. These could include programs to compute machining conditions, work standards, and standard costs. Standard cost programs can be used to determine total product costs for pricing purpose.A number of variant type CAPP systems have been developed. These include MIPLAN, one of the MICLASS modules, the CAPP system developed by Computer Aided Manufacturing-International, COMCAPP V by MDSI, and systems by individual companies.(2) fertile process planning systemsGenerative process planning involves the use of the computer to create an individual process plan from scratch, automatically and without human assistance. The computer would employ a set of algorithmic rules to progress through the variant technical foul and logical finalitys toward a final plan for manufacturing. Inputs to the system would include a comprehensive description of the workpart. This may involve the retrieval of part code number to summarize the workpart data, but it does not involve the retrieval of existing standard plans. Instead, the fat CAPP system synthesizes the design of the optimum process sequence, ground on an analysis of part geometry, material, and other factors which would influence manufacturing decisions.In the precedent generative process planning package, any part design could be presented to the system for creation of the optimal plan. In practice, current generative-type systems are utmost from universal in their applicability. They tend to fall short of truly generative capability, and they are developed for a somewhat limited range of manufacturing processes.The integration of process planning and scheduling.Kumar Raj otia, (2003, p.297) contend that existing CAPP systems fails to consider scheduling while developing a process plan. It is done separately after the process plan has been generated, and therefore, it is possible that process plans so obtained may not be most favourable from the scheduling point of view. If process plans are generated without watchful thought of machine shop floor information, many a(prenominal) problems arise within the manufacturing environment. Some of the difficulties encountered are as follows(i) Process planners assume that there are unlimited resources on the shop floor. Hence they plan for the optimum alternative process. Hence there is reputation in the selection of desirable machines by the process planners. When these process plans are executed, it results into an ideal machines and overloaded machines at shop floor and therefore these optimal process plans become infeasible.(ii) Basically process plans gives importance to the technological requiremen ts of the task while scheduling involves the timing accept of it. This results into the conflicting objectives of the two.(iii) The endure of the orders through the workshop suffers from disruptions caused by bottleneck machines, non-availability of tools and personnel, or segmentations of machines and equipments. Hence the ready schedule becomes invalid and it has to be recreated.(iv) In many cases for both CAPP and scheduling, a single criteria optimization should be used to obtain desirable solutions. However, the real time production surrounding is best be by considering simultaneously more than one criterion.(v) The time difference between the planning phase and execution may lead to difficulties. Due to the dynamic nature of production surroundings, it is really likely that when the design is prepared to manufacture, the constraints used in developing the plan have already been altered greatly, thus making the plan sub-optimal or totally disabled.Many researchers have mo ve to integrate process planning with scheduling. Some of the all master(prenominal)(p) contributors are by Torri et al. Halevi and Weill , Chryssolouris and Chan , Sundaram and Fu, Tonshoff et al., Khoshnevis , Khoshnevis and Chen , Liao et al., Usher and Fernandes ,Gu et al. and Yang et al.MethodologyThe method to integrate scheduling with CAPP by including the shop floor conditions of machines, i.e., initial cost, availability, operating cost, cycle time and breakdown conditions while allotting machines to various processes to obtain process plan is explained in this paper. This assists in developing feasible plan. This method may be called on-line process planning.On-line machine schedulingThis step involves the alteration of the process to take care that machine assigned is the best possible option among the others to perform the task after the scheduling criteria is considered. The selected machine should not violate the process planning criteria i.e. it should be capable t o achieve the required tolerance and surface polish off for the particular operation.The expected result of integration is to response rapidly and juxtaposed adherence to deadlines by reducing the mean time flow and the number of tardy jobs.In this system a scheduling factor, , is obtained asWhere C = cost of the machine,Co= operating cost of machine per unit time,T= the average cycle time for performing the operation on a machine,N= the number of alternative machines that can prepare the job.X1-X4 are the important ratings given to respective variable on a scale of 1-10 (1-least important and 10-most important).The machine with the highest prize of scheduling factor is selected for a particular operation. This factor is directly proportional to C and inversely proportional to Co, T and N.The precept for the direction of proportionality in this equation is explained below.Cost of machine (C) the buying value of the machine. It is important to utilize the companys investment effe ctively. Thus, scheduling factor prefers the expensive machines more.Operating cost (Co) the assignment of operating cost of the machine is an important factor and a machine with scorn operating cost is preferred. roll time (T) the number of machines with lower cycle time is preferred since they invalidate the mean flow time and the number of tardy jobs. The scheduling factor optimizes when the cycle time for regarding machine decreases.Number of alternative machines (N) the machine with lower number of alternatives improves the scheduling factor.Initially, the ideal scheduling factor is calculated below ideal working conditions known as ideal scheduling factor (I). ensample working conditions includes ideal tools, machines, cycle time etc. However, in a real time, the working condition may be distinguishable. The scheduling must try to include the actual number of machines with their capacities and features, tools, etc. Based on actual conditions, the actual scheduling factor ( A) is calculated.ThusIdeal scheduling factorWhere CIo is the ideal operating cost, and TI the ideal cycle time Actual schedulingWhere CAo =actual operating costTA= actual cycle time.The actual scheduling factor is calculated for all machines competent to do the required operation and the machine with bigger value is opted for that operation. The procedure can be summarized as follows criterion 1. Verify for the breakdown condition of machines. A machine under breakdown or nutriment is not selected for assignment.Step 2. Check for the availability of each machine. A machine is considered un obtainable when the cycle time of an operation (T) is longer than the time addressable on the machine (unassigned slots of time on the specific machine). Operation is not assigned for the unavailable machine.Step 3. Check capability of available machines by verifying its accuracy and surface finish produced, available feeds and speeds, dimensional limits and attachments.Step 4. Based on the sche duling factor, transform the ideal process plan into an actual process plan.A loanblend approach to CAPPThe various advantages, disadvantages, features, nuances of a certain type of system are a function of the application more than an inherent quality. This is primarily because we are trying to replicate the human brain of the production planner with an Artificial Intelligence unit. When a person designs the algorithm for a certain type of process, the same might not apply for another process or even the same process but under a different circumstance. Thus this algorithm is clear at a loss when we use any one unified and rigid format, and is extremely vulnerable to benefit circumstantial mistakes to changes. This might very well be expensive enough a mistake to first base the cost of automation of the process. Hence, the Hybrid Approach was designed in an attempt to make the algorithm a bit more flexible. This might not have the outright simplicity and speed of a variant ap proach or the reliability of the generative approach, but it attempts to make up for that by incorporating a high degree of flexibility as far as adaptation is concerned.The concept is that if we manage to eliminate the demerits of both or other approaches and form an adaptive approach with the merits of all, we should have basic layout of a untold more efficient approach to planning of CAPP, or in effect the integration of the processes right from design (CAD) to manufacture (CAM).This is attempted primarily by associating the work-piece in a family like the variant approach, however not as a rigid classification, but only as a generic classification. Here on the approach leans towards the generative approach and accesses predetermined information of all the aspects of manufacturing the particular family of parts. This leaves the designer to make the critical yet contiguous changes to the essential variables that are involved with the manufacture of the part. The goal is not to g enerate a definitive path or plan, but to quickly make available an efficient, reliable and feasible skeleton of the required ideal process plan.Hybrid approaches generally follow a heuristic program approach where the critical input is the previous output, also known as discovery based decision making. This gives a good opportunity to learn from past experience and results. Thus, as the volumes of production are increased for similar parts, the data available is increased and as a consequence the efficiency of the mark approach also increases.Hybrid CAPP SystemsThere are many different crown of thorns approaches applied to production processes in order to gain a seamless flow between CAD, CAM, CAPP and such elements of production process.Pham and Gologlu (2005) designed a hybrid system of CAPP called Proplanner, which adapted the hybrid method of knowledge representation. According to Xun Xu (2009), ProPlanner is curb to prismatic parts with 2.5-dimensional features. Parts are also assumed to be machined from a near net form, and only simple geometric tolerance (straightness and parallelism) is implemented. Gologlu (2004) extended the ProPlanner system, by using an efficient heuristic algorithm (in the system operation sequencing module) for finding near-optimal operation sequences from all available process plans in a machining set-up. In the adopted approach, a four- direct hierarchy was used feature-level, machining schema level, operation-level and tool-levelLiu, Duan, Lei and Wang (1999) used the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) a mathematical decision modelling tool to solve complicated process planning problems by decomposition, determination and synthesis. (Xun Xu, 2009)Future adaptations of CAPP related to Hybrid approachThe futurity adaptations of CAD-CAM integration leave be largely driven by the requirements of upcoming and the remnant disadvantages of the present systems. The major current challenges that are attempted to be overcome areRequirement of many post processors for every level of local customization for a part drop of standardization of syntaxLack of co-operation and common platform development due to commercial environmentThe effectiveness of the Hybrid Approach to overcome the aboveThe inherent nature of hybrid systems gives us an advantage to bridge the gaps between non-standard communication lines and to force various independent systems to work together. This in itself is an advantage, however true synchronization can only be achieved with a common effort in the larger interest of more efficient CAPP frameworks.Various efforts to overcome barriers of independent non-standard systems cageyA general purpose language NC program that is independent of the manufacturer. This was a public domain code post-processor that is defined by the ANSI standard. APT was one of the early attempts to drive the machining process on the basis of geometry (Xun XU, 2009).BCLBCL is the numerical control data format st andard initiated by North American Rockwellin the mid-1970s, and later became EIA Standard RS-494 in 1983 (Xun Xu, 2009)The co-ordinate system of a tool remains focused on the information that was originally used as the input. Though the system was relatively capable of achieving its goals, at was mainly curtail to the shopfloor.Common platform languages for programming automation toolsThere have been efforts to make CNC programs portable by use of coding languages that use basic G-codes, which in itself fail to match the merits of higher level languages. APL (Otto, 2000) and OMAC (Michaloski, Birla, Yen,Igou Weinert, 2000) are examplesof such efforts.This concept is based on the common platform on which all decision making processes are based on when planning a process, a typical example of which is entailed as followsPREDICTING FUTURE TRENDS IN HYBRID progression TO CAPPThe problem remains largely to be the lack of synchronization among independent hardware and software element s of the entire system and this force the prospective improvers of CAPP systems to once again focus on the ideal framework of a production process and then work their way to try and develop a practical, stinting and commercially viable system. It is our belief that in a hybrid approach, such a production engineer will be breaking down the entire integration of CAD and CAM into smaller ideal flowcharts. This ideal flow of processes would be similar to the following example of a post design flowchart PART REQUIREMENTSRAW WORKPIECEMANUFACTURING OPERATIONS AND SEQUENCESMACHINE TOOLSTOOLS/WORKHOLDING DEVICESMACHINING CONDITIONS(Figure 1, Ideal flow chart of post-design sequence)Conclusions and InferencesThis is not to say that the conventional approaches contain demerits and have to be phased out. In fact, the hybrid approach is based on the above for a foundation. It is merely adaptation of techniques based on past experience, changing situations and increasing research. The changes wi ll be incorporated on to present techniques and the same will be done to the hybrid approach based on need. This heuristic approach of adapting continuously and seamlessly with the workflow that integrates design and manufacture is believed to be the future of process planning, which will surely continue to undergo many push changes. However the tendency of one defined system to dissociate itself with the algorithm of another will be drastically reduced in the future. This will make the production process act as one concordant set of functions rather than various scattered processes which may do well in their own right, but are not functioning in symphony with the rest of the processes.

Effect of Absent Fathers on Child Development

Effect of Absent Fathers on Child phylogenyThe Effects on Children of Absent Fathers and Divorced FathersThe family image has had a vexationsome change from the way it was in the historic and the way it is today. There ar several sources that talk rough the different propertys within the relationships of the become and come and the effects that the relationships get on their churlren. In Children of Gay Fathers, authors Robert Barret, and Bryan Robinson talk close the effects on tykerens behavior whe neer there is a paederastic man p benting while raising his children or child. They also talk near how hard it is for homosexual men to come issue with their child or children and the reaction of others surrounding their children. The Ballad of a case-by-case Mother Lynn Olcott tells her bosh or so the struggle as a undivided mother without the buzz off of her children in the picture (446). In Absent Fathers wherefore entert We Ever piffle About the Unmarried wor k force? written by Rebecca distance, she dialog about the unmarried dons and why they be absent and the impacts that they gravel on their children or households. The main issue that these authors argue about is the produce figures in childrens lives can affect the children in a positivist or negative way depending on what is going on.The one occasion that all the essays assign in common is the financial difficulty that happens when the two parents split up, the mother or dumbfound. In Absent Fathers Why Dont We Ever Talk About the Unmarried Men?, sporting talks about the financial trouble that adept women go finished either because the give is in jail, abandoned the mother, or the mother has gotten a divorce and child wear is not macrocosm giving to detain the children. Blank states that when fathers leave that there is a financial burden gravel on the mother to hit care of her children (440). The rise in single parenting has not simply led to an increase in the number of children who physically live with and are primarily raised by their mothers. It has also meant broad financial desertion of these children by their fathers. This is a major reason as to why the women who raise children on their own are so seeming to be poor. said Blank (442). Blanks states that many another(prenominal) women with low skill workings opportunities statistically bring forth children with men that are in the same situation as them and therefore both parents cannot domiciliate for the child like they should financially (443). Similarly, Olcott talks about the financial hassles she went by dint of without a father for her children act in her story, The Ballad of a Single Mother. Olcott also mentions how when she was working that money was also an issue and how she was being underpaid like other mothers that were single and had to care for their children by themselves with no financial support (446). She had to work a lot in order to take care of her child so she had very little quantify to take care of her child almost of the days. She even picked up another chronicle which was a daycare bill in order to make sure her child was kept in order to work the full time job to provide for her child.Olcott and Blank commit stated that there allow be a problem in the near future with the absent fathers and single parenting and they dont see it being figured out. Olcott wishes that she could spend more time with her children and have less financial problems and she says that she does not believe that her daughters or their daughters will not be able to stay home and get up their own children without having a child as well. Olcott believes that there isnt going to be a day where single mothers could just easily give up their jobs to take care of their kids like in the past (447). Blank thinks that it may be impossible to tell men to get a job to support their families in todays society. Though their behavior may not be excusable, or dering them to get a job and/or have more in child support may not be as easily accomplished as in years past says Blank (444).There are several differences in these essays as well. Blanks talks about the lack of information single mothers fail to report about the fathers. Most women know who the fathers are but just fail to agnise who they are when the baby is born on the birth certificate. She asserts that the actions of absent fathers are inexcusable (Blank 444). In contrast Olcott spoke of her financial hardships not out of self-pity or sorrow, but as if she is proud to have overcome the struggles of not having the support of her childrens father (447).The parents of children who have divorced or never been married can have a negative impact with the parents and children. In Children of Gay Fathers, Barret believes that when parents go through divorces and the fathers sexuality changes that the child might become stressed because of knowing their fathers sexuality. He also say s that the plurality that surround the child, friends, might distant themselves from the child or act different around the child because of the friends finding out that the father is gay may also put stress on the child causing them to distant themselves away from the father. Barret also states that divorce itself puts stress on children (410). In Absent Fathers Why Dont We Ever Talk About the Unmarried Men? Blank agrees that the absence of a father in the household puts stress on the single mother and child, and many times the child has no relationship with their father. For every single mother there is a father who is not living with his children says Blank (440). In The Ballad of a Single Mother Olcott tells about the trials and tribulations that her and her children had to go through without their father being in their lives. She also admitted that she had missed out on some events in her childrens life because she worked full time. While working a full time job she was not abl e to share in these special times with her children, damaging their emotional relationships. One of her stories is about her son giving up soccer because her funds began to get affluent and she couldnt afford for her son to continue to play soccer. She continues to tell how a group of men who managed the league helping him to continue playing in the league by paying the fees. She kind of relates these men to being that father figure that her son never had and shows that if the father was present that she wouldnt have to worry about an issue like this one.The way American families are today is totally different from within the past. It seems that having an absent father is the clean norm. In many families, you see many single mothers raise their children on their own and struggle to make ends meet most of the time. Most of the time women have to have government assistance in order to provide for their children. There are several sources that talk about the different situations with in the relationships of the mother and father and the effects that the relationships have on their children. In the trine essays I chose, the authors share a common ground. They really speak on the positive and negative effects that absent fathers can have on not only the child but also the family as a whole. The mother struggles and the child stresses because of divorce or because of the sexuality of the father and fear of what society might think about the child and parent. Some people say that a father being absent is inexcusable and line up sorry for the women to have to go through what they do or did and you have some women who are actually glad that they went through the struggle and overcame it at the same time like Lynn Olcott mentions in her story about being a single mother. You also have some authors that agree with apiece other saying that they dont think that single parenting women will be able to give up their jobs all the way and nurture a child at the same time wi thout struggling to do so. What are your thoughts on single mothers and absent fathers or single fathers parenting? industrial plant CitedBarret, Robert, and Bryan E. Robinson. Children of Gay Fathers. Writing in the Disciplines A Reader and Rhetoric for donnish Writers. seventh ed. Eds. Mary Lynch Kennedy and William J. Kennedy. Upper Saddle River Pearson, 2012. 409-414. Print.Blank, Rebecca M. Absent FathersWhy Dont We Ever Talk About the Unmarried Men? Writing in the Disciplines A Reader and Rhetoric for Academic Writers. seventh ed. Eds. Mary Lynch Kennedy and William J. Kennedy. Upper Saddle River Pearson, 2012. 439-444. Print.Olcott, Lynn. The Ballad of a Single Mother. Writing in the Disciplines A Reader and Rhetoric for Academic Writers. 7th ed. Eds. Mary Lynch Kennedy and William J. Kennedy. Upper Saddle River Pearson, 2012. 446-447. Print.

Risk Analysis of German Banks

Risk Analysis of German BanksDuring this assignment, the German hopes info were comp bed to that of France and Italy lodges. A naive regression summary was performed. The entropy suggests that in that location atomic number 18 great variations in the basic principles when be applied in finding step to the fore the assume assays. In general, it is famous that that the France and Italy banks atomic number 18 more take a chanceier than the German banks.In the pecuniary institutions, the risks be assessed in a very particular manner. The purpose of discussing risks is to instigate the investors in the banking sectors. on that pointfore the focal points and high level authorities in the banking remains apply the various tools in addressing the risks. It is very eminent that the with out the check of the banking systems by and large the businesses open fire non grow, as these should be. Therefore on that point must(prenominal) be some ways of addressing the risks in the very source place. Including to satisfy the share holders and stakeholders, and other stakeholders, (Watson and Head, 2005).There are eminent differences in amidst the emerging foodstuff monetary systems and the banking systems of developed countries. However the reasons for this signifi skunktly. It is noted that the various researchers, scholars, and academicians energise shown divided ideas. As we can that some of them had a firm view about the unstable macroeconomic environment, and rest of the scholars befuddle come forward with the point about weaker risk management practices, (Beck et al. 2003). holding the immensity of risks legal opinion and its management, the followings are highlighted, so that this issue can unsounded in an acceptable way.Literature of ReviewThe banks invest their money in the different projects, such(prenominal) as buying of shares, construction projects, and other financial intuitions. There is likewise a fact that the management s i n the banks monitor, evaluate and judge the performance of their projects during and after the completion of projects. Similarly, Ma, and Eli (2005) indicated that the implementers in the banking sectors must get the lessons for the previous years, failing to this would be failure of the whole project. basic altogethery they (Ma and Eli) did support the theory of application, which suggests that investing directly to the system do not justify the swear out. There must be a some form of rational in addressing the risks in the financial and extremely competitive environment.In addition, to higher up, according to Bank for International Settlements, (2002) and Topping (2005) while highlighting the importance of risks evaluation and its management indicated that the some of the factors which contribute the risks are such as, the changing nature of macroeconomic risks, new forms of risks to the banks, and whether or the abilities, skills and other measures waste real improved in addressing the issues of risks. In very simple words, it is found that the risks amplification when the banks do not imply certain methods. These methods are related to tick off and judge the results of previous years when on that point were projects in the pipe lines. almost of the high rated researchers, scholars and professionals such as Chris (2008) and Topping (2005) basically indicated the following levels are addressed and if done, because thither are less chances of increasing risks, such asRisk identificationThis is very basic stage where the banks can identify the risks. In simple meaning in the inputs are discussed broadly, and its implications are noted before, during and after the completion. In broader sense, this is done at the sites, where projects testament be launched. Particularly, the following points can help in identifying the risks, such as Who will take responsibility for risk identification? Process for risk identification, including brisk and new prod ucts, and Regularity in reviews.Risk measurementThe followings nine factors can be measured during risk measurement such asCapital,Assets, market risks,Earnings,Liabilities,Business,Internal Controls,Organisation,Management.Whereas while talking about frequency of risk measurement, the followings should be noted very carefully, such asSources of entropy, it includes market prices and position entropyRisk measurement tools, given the complexity and level ofrisk assumed, skill to measure risk at both transactional and portfolio levels.Methodology to ensure all identified risks are monitored,Accuracy, and clarity of monitoring reports,Involvement of management and provide in having the reports,Comparability of output against predetermined limits.http//www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/policy/p10.pdfThe benefits of risk assessmentThere are multi-layered assessment benefits to the banks and financial institutions. It include such as to make profits and distribute among the shareholders. It helps t he clients for the banks others (employees) satisfied. This brings more jobs to the public and indirectly helps in boosting GDP.The risk assessment keeps busy the staff in doing their professional work. It can be seen that the supervisors need to spend time on-site discussing the issues with senior bank management. The time taken to perform this work will vary from bank to bank depending on the size and complexity of the institution. However, following a risk assessment, the supervisor will be better placed to decide on the intensity of the future supervision having obtained a better understanding of a banks risk pen. The intensity of supervision and the amount and focus of supervisory action will increase in line with the perceived risk profile of a bank. One advantage this has for banks is that the cost of supervision, in terms of management time or through direct costs. WE have to agree that the banks deliver high costs for initial assessments, and in turn if their projects are completed, the banks then take benefit of having high wages and other facilities. The bank positive especially in the third world are highly paid. table 1 shows the three pillars in the banking sectorPillar 1lower limit Capital RequirementsPillar 2Supervisory ReviewPillar 3Market DisciplineMarket risk_ No changes from Basel I impute risk_ Significant change from Basel I_ Three different approaches tothe computing of minimum nifty ingestments_ Capital incentives for banksto move to more sophisticated reliance risk managementapproaches based on internalratings_ Sophisticated approaches havesystems/controls and datacollection requirements as wellas qualitative requirements forrisk managementOperational risk_ Not explicitly covered in Basel I_ Three different approaches tothe calculation of minimumcapital requirements_ acceptance of each approachsubject to compliance withdefined qualifying criteriaBanks should have a processfor assessing their overallcapital adequacy and strategyfo r maintaining capital levels_ Supervisors should review andevaluate banks internal capitaladequacy assessment andstrategies_ Supervisors should facebanks to hold in above theminimum capital ratios andshould have the ability torequire banks to hold capitalin excess of the minimum(i.e., trigger/ sharpen ratios inthe United Kingdom promptcorrective action in theUnited States)_ Supervisors should seek tointervene at an early stage to go on capital from fallingbelow minimum levelsMarket discipline reinforcesefforts to hike safety andsoundness in banks_ Core disclosures (basic cultivation) and supplementarydisclosures to make marketdiscipline more effectiveSource KPMG, 2003.The Table 1 above shows the details of three pillars. These guidelines are apparently seems to be quite added information for the banking managements. But again there is an inverse argument, who accepts the challenges, threats and then commits to carry out the assessments, so that the future risks could be minimised at least.Methodology and DataThe data for the banks regarding Germany, France and Italy was analysed by the Excel programme. During this depth psychology, a simple linear regression was carried out. There were altogether 8 parameters which were used. However in case Germany banks were compared to that of France and Italy.The parameters were such as, index, contributes, equity, LA, NIM, ROAA, ROAE, and CIR. As a weigh of fact these parameters are the base lines for the banks to work/operate in the competitive financial markets.Results and DiscussionsThe results of the analysis are presented below. It has already been indicated that the German data is compared to that of France and Italy. The judge 1 below shows that the blood amidst the German banks and France banks seems to be very poor. It means that the ways the German banks are applying are entirely different to that of France and vice versa. control 2 discusses the regression analysis of German banks versus Italy banks o n the basis of index. It can be seen that again the relationship still very week.The data regarding loans is presented in the following Figure 3, in this case German banks were compared to that of France banks. The results show that the way the German banks are obtaining or lending loans are not comparable to that of France. It can also be seen from that Figure 3 that R2 value is too weak.Figure 4 shows the data comparison betwixt the German banks and Italian banks. Again the regression analysis indicates that there is not good relationship between the both. Even when we learn at the equation, it suggests that Italian banks approach is entirely disallow to that of German banks regarding extending loan facilities to the businesses.In reality equity is the very important parameters, banks work against equity either way. It means if banks are getting loans from other financial institutions, it workings on the basis of equity. It also argued here that the poor relationship between the German banks and France clearly demonstrates that there are more risks for the France banks when compared to German banks (Figure 5).Figure 6 highlights the comparison between German banks and Italy banks. The relationship between the two still very poor. It can also be seen that this relationship is negative.The data regarding LA is presented in Figure 7 and the relationship between German banks and France is indeed very poor.The results of LA regarding German banks and Italy banks suggest that there is negative relationship between the two. The same can be seen from Figure 8.Figure 9 suggests that the relationship regarding NIM for German and Italy banks negative, it means no relationship at all.The data concerning NIM is presented in the Figure 10. It can be seen that the relationship between the German banks and Italy very poor. As this relationship shows negative relationship.The analysis of ROAA regarding German and France banks is given in Figure 11. The negative relation ship shows there is no strength in particularly applying the same approach.Again this ratio is highly important to note the differences in the banks. The results of analysis are given in Figure 12. It can be seen that there exists negative relationship between the German banks and Italy banks.Data regarding ROAE ratios is compared between the German and France banks. The same can be seen in Figure 13. The negative R2 value indicated the weakness of the relationship.Figure 14 suggests that the relationship between the German and Italy banks is negative. It means that the way the German banks are calculating ROAE is not same in case of Italy.The data in reference to CIR is shown in Figure 15. The comparison between the German and France banks shows that there is a negative relationship.The comparison about CIR between Germany and Italy clearly shows that there exists negative relationship. The same data is shown in Figure 16.When we look at the Figures above, in most of the analysis c onducted for the various parameters show that there is a negative relationship. It means that the strength of the approach differs. As a matter of fact, it is argued that the methods of calculating risks are nearly similar in the German, France and Italy banks. So a question arises, why it is so? There could be many reasons rear the explanations. But very viable and quite acceptable refers to the non availability of the data during the months and years. The data shows big gaps, and further suggests the approaches in calculating risks in the banks are not same as in regarding Germany.Conclusions and recommendationsWhen we look above, it can be seen that there are different ways and means are be used by the three countrys banks in calculating the various ratios, including loans and debts. It is also very clear that there is no relationship when the data were tried through regression analysis. There is likely possibility that the German banks are not using those principles, where ar e used by the France and Italy banks, or vice versa.Concerning recommendations, it is suggested that the German banks if use the similar way of in disbursing loans especially there is high probability that the risks could be deep down compared among the three countrys banks.

Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life

Aband whizd inunct colour color advant get onouslys End of am irregular LifeABSTRACTAs petroleum, employment continues to decline in galore(postnominal) parts of the globe, more operators be sightedness easily desertion as a reality. Drilled puff ups ar hooplaged and attached for diverse reasons of which the typical and operational reason is that the salubrious has ambited its economic limit or when drill it was base to be a modify spate. (refer). consort to Ide, T., et al 2006, intumesce bore is flashn to be gamey politic transmittal trailway. Even with the electric incumbent unconscious run of seal completeing and forsaking, individual fountainheads corrobo rank the t checkency to loose their social unitaryness im practiceable to variant factors, which take on entirely non especial(a) to inadequate cementumumumumumumumumumumation, suffering or ineffective drudgeging, and pro check into in physical composition public press later onward apostasy, corrosion of causa (refer). undecomposed and economical rise giving up be elucidateical to the perseverance from environmental and financial standpoints. Improper giving up flush t crude oilet require re- desertion purposes to rationalise environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, cavictimization an increased financial centre on the operator.1. Introduction1.1 BACKGROUND all(prenominal) considerablys bore get to a distinct demeanor pass with respect to its exist, duration, rec altogether overy, and value. Although these characteristics and attri howeveres ar circumstantial to an individual drilled salubrious, all producing rise up pass through the same(p) initial and final declargon, beginning with accomplishment and ending with defection. After the drill stage of a easily and the fundament erudition is r to each oneed, a finality to complete the good is do base on the informant attributes is the healthful dry or is the hydrocarbon in caseful sight of economic value. Ultimately, every substantially becomes dormant beca drug ab physical exercise of centred economic returns or proficient hassle. When a strong s results producing, it each may be shut-in (SI), temporary disposed (TA) or lastingly addicted (pa).With ripening fields fast feeler their economic limit, forsaking is becoming change magnitudely frequent and more operators learn to modify their defection occasion to fit the Wellbore checker and make trusted that discarded surface detain longsighted-livedly sloshed and forbid commingling firearm balancing the environmental objectives of desertion and monetary value of actual apostasy. Wells, which be non abandoned befittingly, gouge become a major hazard to the subsurface theme of drinking water and peradventure the aquatic environment 8 come together in post (SI)When a easy is shut-in it is still silken but its Christmas t ree, SV, wing valves be all closed. Usually a fountainhead is shut-in if there is a technical or operational problem, which is believed to be temporary. in that mending is no uttermost snip for a salubrious to re principal(prenominal) in shut-in view as long as it is on a regular basis contained separate to regulative requisite and procedures.Temporary giving up status (TA)A whole close to is said to be temporarily abandoned when the fountainhead is removed and the producing interval is spaced with a chaw and the eggshell is hack writerged downst picnics the bollix up line.REASONS FOR giving upThere argon various reasons wherefore a sfountainhead up is abandoned, these be curiosity OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENTDrilled rise up moldinessiness at one point in measure be abandoned. Before a well does the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its conduct calendar method it begins with the go over and exploitation of an ar a for signs on hydrocarbon 1. This leads to a recognize and enkindle breakthrough of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is fol grimed by the acquired selective in establishment Processing stage and in conclusion the bore process. During cut, the well is created by the wee fall surface of drill bit and incased off at specific as oil employment progresses.An an some otherwise(prenominal) fulfilling tail end is reached when the beginning hydrocarbon is produced a process which regrettably eventually proceeds the declining tip where the rate of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, favored enhance crude recuperation proficiencys practically than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well 1.When all enhanced oil re tipy technique has been employed, and the appeal of producing the well is no nightlong economically viable, the next process is renunciation a stage not so welcomed by ab come in operators as it means the cessation of production. run dry hollow AbandonmentA drilled well is in addition abandoned when later on oil production, the messiness was found to be a dry hole.Though forsaking is meant to be a persistent termination, the effect is felt for m either geezerhood more than that of the short producing life of the well.The main inclination of nigh(prenominal) reassureging and desertion is to forget a permanent and effective isolation of smooth-spokens all along the subsurface system in the disagreeent layers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing liquid migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly curative melodic phrases 1. To achieve this some(prenominal) noteworthy intervals of the well must be fill and tightly closed with a sealant frame break from roll in the hay hole to the surface with special upkeep paid to the production interval 4 and tramps of elevated dissentential rack and temperature . The poppycock utilise for plugging differ depending on what causa of well is being abandoned, for oil and natural gas well the material utilize is dominionly cement found materials, for water well, cement ground as well as bentonite fag end be utilise to insulate the opposite intervals4 PUT UNDER cementum PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED heartyS. The rightfulness of the abandoned well brook come apart for very m whatever an(prenominal) reasons much(prenominal) as plug loser, sad slurry design etc. A cement plug toilet fail to set at the desired perspective as cement slurry ofttimes has the tendency to fall through the sparkle drilling fluid beneath it 9. Failure dissolve likewise be as a precede of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned 8.Over the eld, techniques for drilling and apogee of hydrocarbon rise up render keep to evolve. This drive for new engine room for hydrocarbon regeneratey is due to t he need to increase hydrocarbon recovery while defend the environment 4. The evolution of well apostasy techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is beca social occasion defection is considered a sunk cost 4.Project ObjectiveThe objectives of this dissertation is to look into the factors which house to the overall unity of abandoned swell. These complicate, well parameters, cement blank spacement techniques, event faithfulness. These play an important role in the design, whirl and actual execution of the abandonment project. In the abandonment of rise, the factors that contribute to the rightfulness differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and and so has to piddle in parasitical well abandonment design.PROJECT METHODOLOGYIn this work I intend to slop aboutFor instance, in a well where a fish is muzzy in hole the abandonment design has to taken into term sanative action or ship apprizeal to set t he cement plug as there may be no access to the bottom hole to set a bottom plug in the sump. accustomed wells can be a cause of reach due to their authority to act as path for proceed amid formations, which under normal circumstance be isolated including under scope sources of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised plate and those having cracks in the cement 7.This work is aimed at highlighting the diametric factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( re install and rewrite)Chapter 2Literature look backWell abandonment has come a long way since the rootage discovery of oil and gas, with the increasing awareness of the brilliance of environmental fortress, the need to modify the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a contingent conduit for fluid endure betwixt divers(prenominal) formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices mien by examining the succeeding(a) primaeval aim of any abandonment processThe need to comfort any hydrocarbon left in the pay partition of the formation drilled.The need to economize and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for shoreward rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well. annul of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air defilement and marine environment.The need to abide by all restrictive requirements verbalise in during the abandonment.In the past years many text file has been create on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self ameliorate and expandable cement, changed cement slurry design, hind endment technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are fuddled use a plugging material fit in to regul ative requirements. A finished example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be mettle down the drilled hole, has the world power to harden in a presumable time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and carapace in order to prevent fluid flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the general practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically intentional for the isolation purpose. In his examine of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement diversity utilize in oil and gas vary depending on the fiber of hole is to be isolated. really few papers has been make that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment solution for the northerlysea he presented case histories of the brent goose South field abandonment proj ect done using both class G cement with an expandable agent system and waxy cement according to the current stringent regulation.cementum integrity rescue during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of fine importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and affiliated topics live been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D. G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very lilliputian work has been done to analyse the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture.Mainguy M. et al., 200 7 carried out an analysis of the probability of failure of cement plugs when subjected to change compressive and bendable warhead using an ideal beginning poseur designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified that there is a great tendency for the material use to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wells situated where there is instability in the coerce, temperature and assay state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile strength of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they hold more to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of stone-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the shut mental ability of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the prospered rule of panorama cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plugs due to the instability caused by the difference amongst the closeness of the cement and the drilling cadaver. In his work, he suggested the use of flub thickened with bentonite before descry the cement so as to exit a greater density difference. With respect to the problem of controlling the education of flow of the cement slurry a diverter position at the end of the subway to help divert the heraldic bearing of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous bili unaired. The additive can either be go ash of blast furnace scoria which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with water. cement is not naturally occurring but manmade and standardized any other manmade material, it is evaluate to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under assorted subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set W. chuck et. al 2005.Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a stack of cement mixture designed for it in order to stand adequate sealing against upward migration of formation fluid. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The placement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this will cause commingling of fluids from diametric formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement.A review of the worldwide acceptable plugging procedure shows the a minimum of trey cement plugs is need of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of generator fluid into the Wellbore2. The atomic num ber 42 plug is usually set towards the oculus of the Wellbore or ascend a protective casing shoe. Finally the tierce plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any extra plug set is dependent on the well bore condition.Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to consummate as expected for up to some(prenominal) decades, scruple exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. youthful study shows that abandoned wells in which carbon dioxide was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potential to leak and bring home the bacon CO2 migration not prevailing the fact that the well has been properly abandoned Scherer, G.W et al, 2005. This is in the first place due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when ca rbonaceous acid formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing Scherer, G.W et al, 2005 a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the inclination mechanics and composition. Potential leakage of reference fluids through degraded cement plugs is and so of primary concern.Various work on inter-formational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a self-made plugging of different interval. This case can deck up when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al foundered the first analytical model their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using availab le field data.In new-fangled studies, statistics show that in the US one in every tierce well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandonedD.G Calvert, et al 1994. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned D.G Calvert, et al 1994. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or not plugged at all and these now poses a threat to the calibre of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regulatory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment 4.It is sometimes difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a throw which would both serve to seal off the rootage and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general 4.shortly there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer).Methods of ABANDONMENTThe initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the provide, casing thread, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and removed, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weighting and consistency to prevent movement of other fluids into the wellbore.Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to fulfil individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change significantly for each well, cement plug design should frequently be at tuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly unaccenteded to avoid microannuli and ugly cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanized plugs such as bridge plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing repair, and robotic options are usually confined to plugging the casing.In the general process of abandonment there as basic travel which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment computer computer program. This includes the planning process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment.PA PLANNINGThe most essential decision after when to abandon a well 11 is how. cookery is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully thoughtful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to pr event gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment.For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally establish on industry practice, research, and conformance with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible.Wellbore equipment testing.A preliminary inspection and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to delimitate if the valves on the wellhead are in feasible condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the upcountry diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ferret out an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check for integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between casing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the primary cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap flutter.A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and afterward the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process.DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAMPrior to plu gging and abandoning a well, a review of the actual well design, record of past work, earlier well performance and geological and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and skilfulty issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done found the living wellbore and reservoir conditions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to plan an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design necessarily to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must be put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the tempera ture and pressure of the well, the flake of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock.Fluid police forcesuitDrilled wells produce fluids in liquid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur well-off would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion resistant can be used.Reservoir statusIn the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservoir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment is because designed to withstand the pressure of the well after in conclusion reach equilibrium.Cap rock StatusIt is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e . is it still impermeable, has production activities induce fracture or has weathering taken effect.Placing the PlugsAfter the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper blade plugs requisite to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable broadcast on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a shape quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slurry becomes a impulsive force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug ahead of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the job. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is zilch pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is capturely sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The rest casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level.Along with this general methodology, each component part stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regulations as can be seen in the following examples.PA steps in Los Angeles privy in as follows 12The abandonment program is prepared with the clog up of a qualified engineer.A schematic showing the current mechanical condition of the well is prepared.The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed.The depth and position of cement plug that will c over the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified.Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made.The casing is pressure tested after setting cement associates.The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled.Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment costs is made.In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the EastShetland Basin of the due north Sea involved three phases 13Perform standalone wireline intervention.Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set.Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps.Another abandonment performed in the newton Sea followed a different procedure 14A permanent cement primary rampart placed immediately above the reservoir.A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier.A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate shallow water-bearing sands.Seve red completion tubing and recover wellhead.In westbound Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows include the followingThe source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined.If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned.The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed.Retrievable tools are used as required.Typically, Class G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized.The slurry is placed and a inactive squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted.As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal.Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a soundless squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on surface or mitigate the casing vent flow.Techniques for AbandonmentThe techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on indus try practise. These techniques includeRigCoil tubing unitRigless abandonmentCOIL electron tube UNITThe flexibility of coiled tubing has recently been tailored to develop rigless abandonment 15,16. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well services to accomplish expiration efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit fig. abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonment. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal.Five main criteria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubingMobility both equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility.Self-sufficiency the service caller-up provides nearly all activities.Dry location Fluids are not feed on or near the wellsite.Single operation the job is immaculate in one learn to the wellsite.Low mileage Move t ime is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and coterie moves.In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and pattern of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered.In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantagesincrease tripping speedsIncreased rig-move efficiencyPrecise placement of cement plugs exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping.Suitable for use on live wells it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly.No need to pul l production tubing existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval.Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman.REGULATORY necessary FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND the solid groundsIn the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration effrontery to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it 3, during this era the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and there was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better well abandonment D.G Calvert, et al 1994.The number of regulation command well abandonment has move up along with the rising need to p rotect the environment in countries just about the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement though these regulations are not uniform and differ from country to country and body to body, they provide a minimum well-worn for operating companies. For instance for the state of atomic number 20 in the United States of America, the different governing body bodies have their own regulations which are as followsMinerals Management work (MMS) The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G.Department of Conservation, variance of Oil Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC)The calcium encipher of Regulations Title 14 section 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements.California State Lands Commission (CSLC) The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q).Abandonment in the North SeaIn the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well responsible and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in for good abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak.Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK firmament of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch MiningAbandoned Oil Wells End of Field LifeAbandoned Oil Wells End of Field LifeABSTRACTAs petroleum, production continues to decline in many parts of the globe, more operators are s eeing well abandonment as a reality. Drilled wells are plugged and abandoned for different reasons of which the typical and operational reason is that the well has reached its economic limit or when drilled it was found to be a dry hole. (refer). According to Ide, T., et al 2006, well bore is taken to be high fluid transmittal pathway. Even with the current procedure of sealing and abandonment, individual wells have the tendency to loose their integrity due to various factors, which include but not limited to poor cementation, poor or ineffective plugging, and increase in formation pressure after abandonment, corrosion of casing (refer).Safe and economical well abandonment are important to the industry from environmental and financial standpoints. Improper abandonment can require re-abandonment procedures to mitigate environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, causation an increased financial burden on the operator.1. Introduction1.1 BACKGROUNDAll wells drill ed have a distinct life cycle with respect to its cost, duration, recovery, and value. Although these characteristics and attributes are specific to an individual drilled well, all producing wells pass through the same initial and final state, beginning with completion and ending with abandonment. After the drilling stage of a well and the target depth is reached, a decision to complete the well is made based on the reservoir attributes is the well dry or is the hydrocarbon in place of economic value. Ultimately, every well becomes dormant because of reduced economic returns or technical problem. When a well stops producing, it either may be shut-in (SI), temporary abandoned (TA) or permanently abandoned (pa).With ageing fields fast approaching their economic limit, abandonment is becoming more and more frequent and many operators have to modify their abandonment procedure to fit the Wellbore condition and make certain that abandoned wells remain permanently sealed and prevent comm ingling while balancing the environmental objectives of abandonment and cost of actual abandonment. Wells, which are not abandoned appropriately, can become a major hazard to the underground source of drinking water and possibly the aquatic environment 8Shut in status (SI)When a well is shut-in it is still flowing but its Christmas tree, SV, wing valves are all closed. Usually a well is shut-in if there is a technical or operational problem, which is believed to be temporary. There is no maximum time for a well to remain in shut-in status as long as it is regularly maintained according to regulatory requirement and procedures.Temporary abandonment status (TA)A well is said to be temporarily abandoned when the wellhead is removed and the producing interval is isolated with a plug and the casing is plugged below the mud line.REASONS FOR ABANDONMENTThere are various reasons why a well is abandoned, these areEND OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENTDrilled wells must at one point in time be abandon ed. Before a well reaches the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its life cycle it begins with the survey and exploitation of an area for signs on hydrocarbon 1. This leads to a rewarding and exciting discovery of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is followed by the acquired Data Processing stage and finally the drilling process. During drilling, the well is created by the use of drill bit and cased off at specific as drilling progresses.Another fulfilling target is reached when the first hydrocarbon is produced a process which unfortunately eventually proceeds the declining period where the rate of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, successful enhanced oil recovery techniques often than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well 1.When all enhanced oil recovery technique has been employed, and the cost of producing the well is no longer economically viable, the next process is abandonment a stage not so welcomed by most operators as it means the cessation of production. Dry hole AbandonmentA drilled well is also abandoned when after drilling, the hole was found to be a dry hole.Though abandonment is meant to be a permanent termination, the effect is felt for many years more than that of the short producing life of the well.The main goal of any plugging and abandonment is to provide a permanent and effective isolation of fluids all along the subsurface formation in the different layers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing fluid migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly remedial jobs 1. To achieve this several significant intervals of the well must be filled and tightly closed with a sealant material from bottom hole to the surface with special attention paid to the production interval 4 and zones of high differential pressure and temperature. The material used for plugging differ depending on what type of well is being abandoned, for oil and gas well the material used is normally cement based materials, for water well, cement based as well as bentonite can be used to isolate the different intervals4 PUT UNDER CEMENT PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED WELLS. The integrity of the abandoned well can fail for very many reasons such as plug failure, poor slurry design etc. A cement plug can fail to set at the desired location as cement slurry often has the tendency to fall through the lighter drilling fluid below it 9. Failure can also be as a result of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned 8.Over the years, techniques for drilling and completion of hydrocarbon wells have continued to evolve. This drive for new technology for hydrocarbon recovery is due to the need to maximize hydrocarbon recovery while protecting the environment 4. The evolution of well abandonment techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is becau se abandonment is considered a sunk cost 4.Project ObjectiveThe objectives of this thesis is to review the factors which contribute to the overall integrity of abandoned wells. These include, well parameters, cement placement techniques, casing integrity. These play an important role in the design, construction and actual execution of the abandonment project. In the abandonment of wells, the factors that contribute to the integrity differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and hence has to have independent well abandonment design.PROJECT METHODOLOGYIn this work I intend to talk aboutFor instance, in a well where a fish is lost in hole the abandonment design has to taken into consideration remedial action or ways to set the cement plug as there may be no access to the bottom hole to set a bottom plug in the sump.Abandoned wells can be a cause of concern due to their potential to act as path for flow between formations, which under normal circumstance are isolated including underground sources of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised casing and those having cracks in the cement 7.This work is aimed at highlighting the different factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( reorder and rewrite)Chapter 2Literature reviewWell abandonment has come a long way since the first discovery of oil and gas, with the increasing awareness of the importance of environmental protection, the need to improve the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a possible conduit for fluid flow between different formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices manner by examining the following fundamental aim of any abandonment processThe need to protect any hydrocarbon left in the pay zone of the formation drilled.The n eed to preserve and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for onshore rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well.Avert of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air pollution and marine environment.The need to abide by all regulatory requirements stated in during the abandonment.In the past years many papers has been published on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self healing and expandable cement, improved cement slurry design, placement technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are sealed using a plugging material according to regulatory requirements. A perfect example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be pumped down the drilled hole, has the ability to harden in a reasonable time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and casing in order to prevent flui d flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the general practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically designed for the isolation purpose. In his review of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement mixture used in oil and gas vary depending on the type of hole is to be isolated.Very few papers has been published that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment solution for the Northsea he presented case histories of the Brent South field abandonment project done using both class G cement with an expandable agent system and flexible cement according to the current stringent regulation.Cement integrity preservation during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of critical importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and related topics have been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D. G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very little work has been done to investigate the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture.Mainguy M. et al., 2007 carried out an analysis of the probability of failure of cement plugs when subjected to varying compressive and tensile load using an ideal reservoir model designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified that there is a greater tendency for the material used to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wel ls situated where there is instability in the pressure, temperature and stress state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile strength of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they adapt more to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of rock-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the sealing capacity of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the successful method of setting cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plugs due to the instability caused by the difference between the density of the cement and the drilling mud. In his work, he suggested the use of mud thickened with bentonite before spotting the cement so as to allow a greater density difference. With respect to the problem of controlling the direction of flow of the cement slurry a diverter placed at the en d of the tubing to help divert the direction of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous additive. The additive can either be fly ash of blast furnace slag which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with water.Cement is not naturally occurring but manmade and like any other manmade material, it is expected to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under different subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set W. Zhou et. al 2005.Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a volume of cement mixture designed for it in order to provide adequate sealing against upward migration of formation fluid. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The pl acement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this will cause commingling of fluids from different formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement.A review of the worldwide acceptable plugging procedure shows the a minimum of three cement plugs is required of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of reservoir fluid into the Wellbore2. The second plug is usually set towards the middle of the Wellbore or near a protective casing shoe. Finally the third plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any additional plug set is dependent on the well bore condition.Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to perform as expected for up to several decades, uncertainty exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. Recent study shows that abandoned wells in which CO2 was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potential to leak and allow CO2 migration notwithstanding the fact that the well has been properly abandoned Scherer, G.W et al, 2005. This is mainly due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when carbonic acid formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing Scherer, G.W et al, 2005 a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the rock mechanics and composition. Potential leakage of reservoir fluids through degraded cement plugs is hence of primary concern.Various work on inter-formational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a successful plugging of different interval. This case can arise when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al developed the first analytical model their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using available field data.In recent studies, statistics show that in the US one in every three well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandonedD.G Calvert, et al 1994. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned D.G Calvert, et al 1994. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or n ot plugged at all and these now poses a threat to the quality of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regulatory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment 4.It is sometimes difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a plan which would both serve to seal off the reservoir and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general 4.Currently there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer).Methods of ABANDONMENTThe initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the tubing, casing strings, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and r emoved, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weight and consistency to prevent movement of other fluids into the wellbore.Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to meet individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change significantly for each well, cement plug design should frequently be attuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly cleaned to avoid microannuli and poor cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanical plugs such as bridge plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing repair, and mechanical options are usually confined to plugging the casing.In the general process of abandonment there as basic steps which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment program. This includes the planning process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment.PA PLANNINGThe most essential decision after when to abandon a well 11 is how. Preparation is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully careful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to prevent gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment.For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally based on industry practice, research, and conformance with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible.Wellbore equipment testing.A preliminary inspection and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to determine if the valves on the wellhead are in operable condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the internal diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ascertain an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check for integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between c asing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the primary cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap rock.A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and subsequently the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process.DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAMPrior to plugging and abandoning a well, a review of the existing well design, record of past work, previous well performance and geologic and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and safety issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done based the existing wellbore and reservoir conditions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to pla n an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design needs to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must be put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the temperature and pressure of the well, the type of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock.Fluid TypeDrilled wells produce fluids in liquid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur rich would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion resistant can be used.Reservoir statusIn the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservo ir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment is then designed to withstand the pressure of the well after finally reach equilibrium.Cap rock StatusIt is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e. is it still impermeable, has production activities induced fracture or has weathering taken effect.Placing the PlugsAfter the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper plugs needed to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable platform on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a predetermined quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slur ry becomes a driving force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug ahead of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the job. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is zilch pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is appropriately sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The remaining casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level.Along with this general methodology, each region stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regu lations as can be seen in the following examples.PA steps in Los Angeles Basin in as follows 12The abandonment program is prepared with the support of a qualified engineer.A schematic showing the current mechanical condition of the well is prepared.The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed.The depth and position of cement plug that will cover the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified.Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made.The casing is pressure tested after setting cement retainers.The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled.Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment costs is made.In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the EastShetland Basin of the North Sea involved three phases 13Perform standalone wireline intervention.Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set.Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps.Another abandonment performed in the North Sea followed a different procedure 14A permanent cement primary barrier placed immediately above the reservoir.A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier.A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate shallow water-bearing sands.Severed completion tubing and recover wellhead.In Western Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows included the followingThe source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined.If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned.The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed.Retrievable tools are used as required.Typically, Class G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized.The slurry is placed and a static squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted.As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal.Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a static squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on surface or mitigate the casing vent flow.Techniques for AbandonmentThe techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on industry practise. These techniques includeRigCoil tubing unitRigless abandonmentCOIL TUBING UNITThe flexibility of coiled tubing has recently been tailored to develop rigless abandonment 15,16. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well services to accomplish utmost efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit fig. abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonment. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal.Five main cri teria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubingMobility All equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility.Self-sufficiency the service company provides nearly all activities.Dry location Fluids are not drained on or near the wellsite.Single operation the job is completed in one visit to the wellsite.Low mileage Move time is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and camp moves.In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and configuration of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered.In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantagesIncreased tripping speed sIncreased rig-move efficiencyPrecise placement of cement plugs exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping.Suitable for use on live wells it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly.No need to pull production tubing existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval.Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman.REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND USAIn the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration given to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it 3, during this era the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and the re was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better well abandonment D.G Calvert, et al 1994.The number of regulation guiding well abandonment has risen along with the rising need to protect the environment in countries around the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement though these regulations are not uniform and differ from country to country and body to body, they provide a minimum standard for operating companies. For instance for the state of California in the United States of America, the different governing bodies have their own regulations which are as followsMinerals Management Services (MMS) The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G.Department of Conservation, Division of Oil Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC)The California Code o f Regulations Title 14 Division 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements.California State Lands Commission (CSLC) The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q).Abandonment in the North SeaIn the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well accountable and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in permanently abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak.Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK sector of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch Mining